{
 "version": "2026-10-20",
 "license": "Dimension sheets: CC BY 4.0. Standard and published-size files: CC BY 4.0. Xem Studio's own designs (files_license = Xem Studio Design License): free to use and sell things from, not to redistribute as files — https://xemstudio.com/license/. Other publishers' files: their own license, linked beside them.",
 "slug": "tapered-wing",
 "name": "Tapered wing (taper ratio for minimum induced drag)",
 "kind": "standard",
 "category": "Aircraft design",
 "group": "Wing planforms",
 "year": null,
 "question": "What taper ratio gives the lowest induced drag?",
 "tags": [
  "vehicle design",
  "wing planforms",
  "rc design",
  "aerodynamics"
 ],
 "aliases": [
  "tapered wing",
  "taper ratio",
  "best taper ratio",
  "taper ratio induced drag",
  "tapered wing rc",
  "tapered vs rectangular wing",
  "trapezoidal wing",
  "wing taper calculator",
  "optimal taper ratio 0.45",
  "tip chord root chord ratio"
 ],
 "overall_mm": {
  "length": null,
  "width": null,
  "height": null
 },
 "official_cad": false,
 "xem_status": "free-files",
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 "free_files": 1,
 "url": "https://xemstudio.com/objects/tapered-wing/",
 "sheet_txt": "https://xemstudio.com/objects/tapered-wing/sheet.txt",
 "sheet": {
  "basis": "Design rules and figures from the cited sources; example geometry by Xem Studio",
  "overall_mm": {
   "length": null,
   "width": null,
   "height": null
  },
  "notes": [
   "Taper ratio is tip chord divided by root chord (Leishman, ERAU). Tapering moves the span loading toward elliptical, raising span efficiency and lowering induced drag (Kitplanes, Wainfan).",
   "Torenbeek's guidance, quoted in a UAV design paper, picks a taper ratio of 0.45 'because it gives fairly elliptic lift distribution and good stall characteristics' (arXiv 1801.02938). Leishman notes linear taper is a good compromise between weight and structural efficiency.",
   "Strong taper loads the tips more, so tapered wings need washout to keep the stall inboard (Boldmethod; R/C Soaring Digest).",
   "The file is a reference example built by Xem Studio from the numbers above. Sizes the sources do not fix are illustrative; scale the example to your own vehicle."
  ],
  "table": {
   "columns": [
    "parameter",
    "value or range",
    "source"
   ],
   "rows": [
    [
     "Taper ratio definition",
     "lambda = c_tip / c_root",
     "ERAU (Leishman)"
    ],
    [
     "Recommended taper (unswept)",
     "0.45",
     "arXiv 1801.02938 citing Torenbeek (1976)"
    ],
    [
     "2:1 taper example",
     "lambda = 0.5",
     "ERAU; Kitplanes"
    ],
    [
     "Span loading example plotted",
     "lambda = 0.4 closer to elliptical than constant chord",
     "Kitplanes (Wainfan)"
    ],
    [
     "Model dihedral correction for taper",
     "EVD factor F = 0.8 + 0.2 (Ct/Cr)",
     "McCombs, Model Aviation 1994"
    ],
    [
     "Reference build",
     "span 1000, root 220, tip 99 (lambda 0.45)",
     "computed"
    ]
   ]
  }
 },
 "sheet_text": "Tapered wing (taper ratio for minimum induced drag) — dimension sheet\nSource: Xem Studio, https://xemstudio.com/objects/tapered-wing/  (sheet CC BY 4.0; files Xem Studio Design License, https://xemstudio.com/license/)\nBasis: Design rules and figures from the cited sources; example geometry by Xem Studio\nCatalog version: 2026-10-20\n\nSizes: see table below\n- Taper ratio is tip chord divided by root chord (Leishman, ERAU). Tapering moves the span loading toward elliptical, raising span efficiency and lowering induced drag (Kitplanes, Wainfan).\n- Torenbeek's guidance, quoted in a UAV design paper, picks a taper ratio of 0.45 'because it gives fairly elliptic lift distribution and good stall characteristics' (arXiv 1801.02938). Leishman notes linear taper is a good compromise between weight and structural efficiency.\n- Strong taper loads the tips more, so tapered wings need washout to keep the stall inboard (Boldmethod; R/C Soaring Digest).\n- The file is a reference example built by Xem Studio from the numbers above. Sizes the sources do not fix are illustrative; scale the example to your own vehicle.\n\nparameter  value or range  source\nTaper ratio definition  lambda = c_tip / c_root  ERAU (Leishman)\nRecommended taper (unswept)  0.45  arXiv 1801.02938 citing Torenbeek (1976)\n2:1 taper example  lambda = 0.5  ERAU; Kitplanes\nSpan loading example plotted  lambda = 0.4 closer to elliptical than constant chord  Kitplanes (Wainfan)\nModel dihedral correction for taper  EVD factor F = 0.8 + 0.2 (Ct/Cr)  McCombs, Model Aviation 1994\nReference build  span 1000, root 220, tip 99 (lambda 0.45)  computed\n\nFiles elsewhere (not hosted by Xem Studio; license as stated by the publisher):\n- Embry-Riddle (Leishman), Introduction to Aerospace Flight Vehicles: Wing Shapes and Nomenclature — web — Publisher's page; dimensions are facts — https://eaglepubs.erau.edu/introductiontoaerospaceflightvehicles/chapter/wing-shapes-and-nomenclature/\n- arXiv 1801.02938 (citing Torenbeek, Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane Design, 1976): Systematic design methodology for a variable pitch quadrotor biplane VTOL UAV — web — Publisher's page; dimensions are facts — https://arxiv.org/pdf/1801.02938\n- Kitplanes (B. Wainfan): Design Process: Planform Effects on Span Loading and Drag (2020) — web — Publisher's page; dimensions are facts — https://www.kitplanes.com/design-process-planform-effects-on-span-loading-and-drag/\n- Model Aviation (AMA), W.F. McCombs: Wing and Tail Dihedral for Models (Dec 1994) — web — Publisher's page; dimensions are facts — https://library.modelaviation.com/article/wing-and-tail-dihedral-models\n- Boldmethod (pilot training): How Stall Strips Keep Your Plane Under Control — web — Publisher's page; dimensions are facts — https://www.boldmethod.com/learn-to-fly/aerodynamics/how-stall-strips-keep-your-plane-under-control/\n- R/C Soaring Digest: Twist Distributions for Swept Wings, Part 2 (June 2002) — web — Publisher's page; dimensions are facts — https://new.rcsoaringdigest.com/2002/06/twist-distributions-for-swept-wings/[pdf].pdf\n\nFree files (Xem Studio Design License, Xem Studio; STEP + STL, 1 parts): https://xemstudio.com/files/hardware/tapered-wing/index.json\nAPI: https://xemstudio.com/api/geometry?object=tapered-wing\n",
 "sources": [
  {
   "publisher": "Embry-Riddle (Leishman), Introduction to Aerospace Flight Vehicles",
   "title": "Wing Shapes and Nomenclature",
   "url": "https://eaglepubs.erau.edu/introductiontoaerospaceflightvehicles/chapter/wing-shapes-and-nomenclature/",
   "formats": [
    "web"
   ],
   "license": "Publisher's page; dimensions are facts",
   "license_verified": true,
   "hosted": false
  },
  {
   "publisher": "arXiv 1801.02938 (citing Torenbeek, Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane Design, 1976)",
   "title": "Systematic design methodology for a variable pitch quadrotor biplane VTOL UAV",
   "url": "https://arxiv.org/pdf/1801.02938",
   "formats": [
    "web"
   ],
   "license": "Publisher's page; dimensions are facts",
   "license_verified": true,
   "hosted": false
  },
  {
   "publisher": "Kitplanes (B. Wainfan)",
   "title": "Design Process: Planform Effects on Span Loading and Drag (2020)",
   "url": "https://www.kitplanes.com/design-process-planform-effects-on-span-loading-and-drag/",
   "formats": [
    "web"
   ],
   "license": "Publisher's page; dimensions are facts",
   "license_verified": true,
   "hosted": false
  },
  {
   "publisher": "Model Aviation (AMA), W.F. McCombs",
   "title": "Wing and Tail Dihedral for Models (Dec 1994)",
   "url": "https://library.modelaviation.com/article/wing-and-tail-dihedral-models",
   "formats": [
    "web"
   ],
   "license": "Publisher's page; dimensions are facts",
   "license_verified": true,
   "hosted": false
  },
  {
   "publisher": "Boldmethod (pilot training)",
   "title": "How Stall Strips Keep Your Plane Under Control",
   "url": "https://www.boldmethod.com/learn-to-fly/aerodynamics/how-stall-strips-keep-your-plane-under-control/",
   "formats": [
    "web"
   ],
   "license": "Publisher's page; dimensions are facts",
   "license_verified": true,
   "hosted": false
  },
  {
   "publisher": "R/C Soaring Digest",
   "title": "Twist Distributions for Swept Wings, Part 2 (June 2002)",
   "url": "https://new.rcsoaringdigest.com/2002/06/twist-distributions-for-swept-wings/[pdf].pdf",
   "formats": [
    "web"
   ],
   "license": "Publisher's page; dimensions are facts",
   "license_verified": true,
   "hosted": false
  }
 ],
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 "related": [
  "rectangular-wing",
  "elliptical-wing",
  "swept-wing",
  "forward-swept-wing",
  "delta-wing",
  "cranked-double-delta-wing"
 ],
 "fits": [],
 "dimensions": "exact (nominal, no printing tolerance)",
 "dimension_rule": "All geometry on Xem Studio is exact (nominal, true size) with no printing tolerance. Where a part meets another part, the object lists its mating features (feature, exact size, what it mates with, fit class: press, slide, run, socket, clamp or designed). Apply your process's allowance to those features only; 'designed' gaps are part of the design and stay as drawn.",
 "mating": [],
 "faq": [
  {
   "q": "What taper ratio should I use?",
   "a": "Torenbeek's 0.45 is a well-cited choice for unswept wings (via arXiv 1801.02938)."
  }
 ],
 "files_license": {
  "name": "Xem Studio Design License",
  "holder": "Xem Studio",
  "url": "https://xemstudio.com/license/",
  "note": "Xem Studio's own design: free to use, print, modify and sell things made from it; not to be republished or redistributed as files."
 },
 "offers": [
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   "file": "tapered-wing-wing",
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    "step",
    "stl"
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   "license": "Xem Studio Design License",
   "step": "https://xemstudio.com/files/hardware/tapered-wing/tapered-wing-wing.step",
   "stl": "https://xemstudio.com/files/hardware/tapered-wing/tapered-wing-wing.stl",
   "note": "tapered planform: span 1000, root 220, tip 99 mm, LE sweep 0°, dihedral 3°, NACA 2412"
  }
 ],
 "markdown": "https://xemstudio.com/objects/tapered-wing/index.md"
}